book review high fidelity

book review high fidelity

All new concepts and theories of translation into a new century

The translation is ultimately a human activity that allows human beings to exchange ideas and thoughts, irrespective of the language used. Wassety al (2001) sees the phenomenon of translation as a legitimate child phenomenon of language, as in the beginning, when humans spread over the earth, their languages are different and needed a means by which people who speak a given language (language) that interact with other people who spoke a different language.

The translation is, in (1997) opinion Enan a modern science at the interface of philosophy, linguistics, psychology and sociology. Literary translation in particular, is relevant to all to these sciences, visual arts and cultural and intellectual studTranslation, under the terms of Chabbe (1984:5), "a meticulous, yet did not been reduced to strict scientific standards, and allows the differences that are known to exist between different personalities. The translation is an art very subjective, especially when it comes to issues outside the scope of science where concepts are defined precisely as often expressed by certain generally accepted terms.

Ultimately, the translation is a science, an art and know-how. This is a science that requires a thorough knowledge of the structure and composition of the two languages in question. It is an art, requiring an artistry to reconstruct the text original in the form of a product that is presentable to the reader who does not need to be familiar with the original. It is also a skill, because it implies the power to alleviate the difficulties of translation, and the ability to provide translation of something unparalleled in the target language.

In translation, the richness of vocabulary, depth of culture and vision of the translator could certainly have very visible in their work. Another translator can produce a reasonably acceptable version of the same text, which, however, may well reflect a completely different context, different culture, sensitivity and temperament. These differences can, according Chabbe (1984), at the expense of the merits of any translator. It's just that the translation is definitely a creation of the toughest jobs.

The question of the possibility of translation is widely regarded as essential for any understanding of what is language. If the translation is not possible, then what language does? The translation is possible in the sense that humans have (Or claim to have done) for thousands of years, but we have no guarantee that the message was really sent the message was received. If I ask you to open the window and only then, can not be too presumptuous to think that the message has been correctly translated, but in the case of a large number of cases possible language – probably the majority – such confirmation is not possible ambiguities.

Same In this case, "respect" to my application may be the result of sheer coincidence, my lack of understanding of what you have done, or factor completely foreign.

Translation between languages is not a complete translation, but it is a special case of limiting light of a broader phenomenon great. The need to translate the word (within or between languages), presents serious practical difficulties for a large number of people overnight. However, the texts written over the introduction of the theoretical problem of translation, a "literal" translation would be unthinkable in an oral culture totally. In fact, the concept of "fidelity" to an "original" must be very different in an oral culture to a culture dominated by print.

In addition, text messages raise the question of "translation" between speech and writing. The creation of alphabets and writing oral traditions authorize or at least allow the separation of language background of meaningful content – after all, a "translation" has already occurred in writing the spoken word. Of content and medium can change independently of each other. This is appeal in writing why Socrates in the Phaedrus: the writing is both powerful and dangerous – it's magic – and the possibility the translation is to transform words into danger beyond the recognition of the search for truth.

Only two centuries after Socrates distinguishes between the living, the fundamental word that emerges from the dialectic of mind and the written word poison that kills the memory, the Jewish scribes translated the Scriptures Hebrew into Greek. It was at a time when what Walter Ong calls the culture was growing in importance Chirograph, once writing listing has been increasingly influential in

Mediterranean world, still dominated oral culture. It is this cultural transformation, and So the threat of loss of consciousness, that Judaism, Christianity and Islam – in which the religions of the written Word had a huge influence – answered their different views of the translatability of Scripture.

The issue of translation is deep theological dimensions. Question writing – its nature, meaning and authority – is inseparable from the translation.

Even in our modern world, readers tend to consider the original work – the "Holy Scriptures" or secular literature – as far superior to the more authoritative any of its translated versions. In Islam, this trend is coming to an end. Muslims believe that God gave his revelation through Muhammad in Arabic, and only true or correct Koran is the Koran in Arabic. Arabic is the divine language. The material body of the text and its meaning are regarded as inseparable, and problem of translation is eliminated, because the possibility of translation has been denied. Or rather, the problem is disguised and absorbed into the general problem of interpretation – the question more general meaning of the text.

In contrast, Jewish and Christian traditions served very early – the Septuagint (200 BC) and the New Testament century (AD) – the translation of the language and concepts of the Hebrew Bible. Hebrew is considered sacred in at least some Jewish communities and maintain an ambivalent attitude towards the Jews the status of the Torah in the translation. In legend on the wording of the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, God supports this act of translation through unanimously miraculous work to seventy translators.

However, in another account, the disapproval translation of God is manifested through the darkness on Earth.

In the oldest stratum of the Hebrew Bible, the story of the Babel Tower

(Gen.11 :1-9) implicitly denies that any human language is the language of God and states explicitly that "the language of" all the land was "confused" by God. The multiplicity of languages is a punishment (or a gift?) From God Translation is both necessary and impossible. It is the purpose of the Kabbalah, the mystical reading of Scripture, rabbinic find reflected in our human languages after Babel them, especially the languages of the Torah, it is an echo of the true language of God.

Because the Hebrew alphabet (As pre-Masoretic) has no vowels, the letters can not say no additional interpretation by the reader. The difference between writing Oral and much higher than for a text in English or Greek. In itself the Hebrew text makes no sense and depends on the vocalisation sense, and yet, as Canon is always before the word, any authentic interpretation. Here is the text of the distinction between the written material and the meaning is very clear. Language significant results the difference in meaning.

Criteria for a good translation

A good translation is one that takes all original ideas, as well as structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988) established criteria for good translation as follows:

1. A good translation is easy to understand.
2. A good translation is fluid and smooth.
3. A good translation is idiomatic.
4. Good translation expresses a certain extent, the literary subtleties of the original.
5. A good translation makes a distinction between the metaphorical literal.
6. A good translation recreates the cultural and historical context of the original.
7. A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations and allusions to sayings, songs and rhymes.
8. A good translation is transmitted both as possible, the original meaning of the text (Pp. 19-24).

The Shafei (1985: 93) suggests other criteria for a good translation, which include three basic principles:

1. Knowing the grammar of the language of origin, and the knowledge to understand the vocabulary and sound on the text.
2. Translator the ability to reconstruct the given text (original text) in the target language.
3. The translation must capture the style and atmosphere of the text original, but should have all the ease of original composition.

On the other hand, the Touny (2001) focused on the distinction between different types of translation. He said there are eight types of translation: word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, the translation adjustment, free translation, translation and the translation of communication. He called this latter type that transmits a message by the context, the shape and structure of the original and that is easily understood by readers of the target language.

The Zeini (1994) was not met these criteria to assess the quality of translation. He therefore suggested a pragmatic and stylistic model to evaluate the quality of translation. She explained that the model focuses on equality of the pragmatic component, in addition to the stylistic component in the translation. This model covers a set of criteria, which are divided into two broad categories: content-related criteria and criteria related to the way "and expected that, following these criteria, "Translators can minimize the possibility of producing errors or losses, and eliminate the problems of unacceptability.

Translation problems

Translation problems can be divided into linguistic and cultural problems: problems linguistic differences into account grammatical, lexical ambiguity and the ambiguity of meaning, cultural issues different characteristics of the situation. This classification coincides with that of the Zeini when we have identified six major problems in the translation from Arabic into English and vice versa, which is the lexicon, morphology, syntax, textual differences, the differences in rhetoric and the pragmatic factors.

Other level of difficulty in the translation work is what As-Sayyid (1995) found when they conducted a study to compare and evaluate some problems in the translation just the name of Allah in the Koran. He noted that some of the major problems of translation are over-translation, under the translation, and untranslatable.

The culture is another major problem facing translators. A bad model parts translated literature may give false ideas on the original. Therefore Fionty (2001) thought that the poorly translated texts distort the original in tone and cultural references, while Zidan (1994) questioned the possible role of content in variable culture as a motivating goal to improve or hinder the achievement of language communicative and, above all, cultural EFL (English as Second Language) education. Hassan (1997) emphasized this idea by stressing the importance pay attention to the translation of irony in the language of the original context. He said that not only the transfer characteristics of the language translated, but also their cultural characteristics.

The translator working

These problems and others direct our attention to the work and character of translators, how to attack a text to translate, and the processes they follow to reach the final product of a well-translated text in the target language.

Enan (1994:5) defines translation as "a writer who puts forward ideas to say to readers. The only difference between it and the original writer is that these ideas "of the latter. Another difference is that the translator is still working more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to lead directly to their ideas and emotions in your own language complex and complicated, but their thoughts are. The translator's responsibility is much greater, for s / ha to relive the experience of another person. Chabbe (1984) considers States, however, that the translator can dive into the depths of the mind of the writer, some of enormous linguistic and other difficulties, may prevent the two texts to be totally equivalent. Therefore, not only to perceive the differences between a text and its translation, but also between different translations of the same text

In terms of procedure, the Shafei (1985:95) states: "A translator first analyzes the message, dividing it into its simplest and clearest structural elements, transferred to this level in the target language in a way that is most appropriate for the audience. A translator instinctively concludes that it is preferable to transfer the kernel level "in a core language appropriate level" in the receptor language.

translation skills for novice translators

This study proposes four macro-skills for any translator who began his work in the field of translation. These are: reading comprehension, research, analysis and composition skills. These macro-skills include many sub-or micro-skills to master.

Comprehension

While we are translating, do not think our company is divided into phases. After our first translations, many automatic mechanisms come into plays that allow us to translate more quickly and at the same time, we are increasingly aware of our activity.

1. The first phase of the process translation is to read the text. The act of reading, first, is a psychological issue, because it relates to our system perception. Reading, like translation, which is largely an unconscious process. If conscious, we would be forced to consume much more time there. Most mental processes in the act of reading is automatic and unconscious. Because of this commonality and little known in the same time, in our opinion, it is important analyze the reading process as precisely as possible. The work of some perception psychologists will be useful to broaden our understanding of this first phase of the translation process.

When a person reads, his brain is responsible for many tasks in an order so quickly that everything seems to be move along. The eye looks (from left to right as Western languages are concerned, or from right to left or up and down in other languages) a series of graphic signs (graphemes) on, giving life to syllables, words, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters and texts.

A simple reading of a text is in itself an act of translation. When reading, do not store the words we read in our minds as with the data entered via a keyboard or a scanner to a computer. After reading, we have the photographic record or a hearing in the spirit of the text. We have a series of prints in place. We recall a few words or phrases with precision, while all the rest of the text is translated from the spoken language in a language belongs to another system of signs, which is largely unknown: the mental tongue.

The mental process of reading the verbal material is syntactic in nature when we try to reconstruct the structure of the sentence as possible, ie relations between its elements. On the other hand, is semantic, in identification of relevant areas in the semantic field of a word or phrase, and it is pragmatic when it comes to the logic of chance of possible meanings with the background and text co-word.

The difference between a reader and a critic is negligible: the reader try understand is the same attitude as the critic, a reader systematic, methodical and self-conscious. During playback, the individual perceives the bed and reading, making interpretations and conclusions about the possible intentions of the author of the message.

Holmes (1988) suggests that the process translation is a multilevel process, as we translate sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and at the same time, a map the type of text we are producing in the target language. Even if they are placed in series, we have this notion of structure so that each sentence in our translation is determined not only by the original sentence, but also by the two maps, the original text and translated the text below we translate.

The translation process must therefore considered a complex system in which the understanding, treatment, and the projection of the translated text are interdependent structure. Therefore, we propose as the fact Hnig (1991), the existence of a "CPU" to ensure coordination of different mental processes (those related to reading, interpreting and writing) and at the same time a map projection of the text will.

new translators and translation students following items are invited to master the basic skills of understanding reading.

• Read the main ideas and key.
• Read for more details.
• Find the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more components of the provision of structural analysis; prefixes suffixes, roots, word order, punctuation, structure words, etc.
• Find the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more of the contextual analysis, synonyms, antonyms, examples, etc.
• Identify the style of the writer: literary, scientific, technical, informational, persuasive, argumentative, etc.
• Identify the level of language used in the text: the standard jargon, religious, etc.
• Identifying references to cultural rights in the choice of words in the text.

Cultural translation

Culture and intercultural skills and knowledge from experience of culture are much more complex than it appears to the translator. More than one translator is aware of the complexity of differences between cultures, the best translator s / he will be. It is likely that the law has never been a time when the community of translators was unaware of cultural differences and their importance for translation. translation theorists have been aware of problems resulting in knowledge cultural differences and cultural, at least since ancient Rome. The cultural expression and cultural differences were a major element training of translators and translation theory for as long as it has been in existence. The main concern has always been with words and phrases that are so strongly and exclusively based on a culture that is almost impossible to translate words – verbal or otherwise – to another. lengthy discussions took place at the time of the paraphrase, when to use the nearest local equivalent, where to coin a new word to be translated literally, and the time to transcribe. All such "untranslatable" words and phrases related cultural continued to fascinate translators and translation theorists.

The first theory developed in this field was presented by Mounin in 1963, which stressed the importance of the sense of a token by argued that only if this concept is that the translation component to perform its function properly. The problem with this theory is that all cultural elements imply not only articles, which a translator must do in the case of the cultural implications which are involved in the knowledge of previous readers SL?

The concept of culture is essential to consider the implications for the translation and, despite differences of opinion, whether the language is part of the culture or not, two concepts of culture and language seem to be inseparable. In 1964, Nida has examined the problem of correspondence in translation, give equal importance to two linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and TL, and concluded that the differences between cultures can lead to complications of severe damage to the translator that differences in the structure of language. He further explained that the parallels in culture often provide a common understanding despite significant changes form in the translation. He said the cultural implications of translation are thus of considerable importance, as well as concerns vocabulary.

Nida's formal definitions and dynamic equivalence in 1964 to examine the cultural implications of translation. According to him, a glimmer of "translation" more characteristic formal equivalence where form and content is reproduced as faithfully as possible, and the reader of the LT is able to "understand as much as you can from customs, mode of thought, expression and means "of the SL context. Contrary to this idea, the dynamic equivalence" tries to connect the receptor to modes of behavior appropriate in the context of their own culture "without insisting that he" understand the cultural practices of their linguistic context. "He said problems may vary according to cultural and linguistic differences between the two (or more) languages concerned.

One could say that the concept for the first time in studies of cultural translation cultural shift in 1978 was presaged by the work on the translation polysystem standards and Even-Zohar and Toury 1980. Reject types of linguistic theories of translation and indicate as having passed the word to the text as a whole, but not beyond. They go beyond the language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, the impact of culture and the limitations on translation and large themes of context, history and the Convention. Therefore, the stage of translation as a text to translate culture and politics is what we call a cultural turn in translation studies and became the motive of a metaphor, adopted by Bassnett and Lefevere 1990. In fact cultural shift is Theories of metaphor adopted by translators cultural studies to refer to the analysis of translation in its cultural, political, and ideological context.

From 1990 Time has been expanded to include a wide range of approaches from cultural studies and is a true indicator of the interdisciplinary nature of contemporary translation studies. Following this tour called cultural, cultural studies has become increasingly more stakeholders interested in the translation. One consequence has been to bring together researchers from different disciplines. It is important to mention here that these cultural theorists have maintained their own ideologies and programs that conduct their own criticisms. These approaches have expanded the cultural horizons translation studies with new ideas, but at the same time, there was a strong element of conflict between them. It should be noted that the existence of these different views is inevitable.

In the 1980s introduced the theory of mid skopos Vermeer is a Greek word for "goal" or "object". It is part of the theory of translation of a technical term for the end of translation and the action of the translation. Skopos theory focuses mainly on the purpose of translation, which determines the translation method and strategies to use to produce an appropriate functional outcome. The result is TT, which calls translatum Vermeer. Therefore, knowing what SL is to translate and what is the role of TT are crucial for the translator.

In 1984, Reiss and Vermeer in his book with the title of "bases of General Theory of translation based on rules governing" fundamental " this theory are: 1 – A translatum (or TT) is determined by your skopos, 2 – A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL considering an offer of information in a source of culture and SL. This is related to ST and TT with its role in their own language and cultural context. Translator is once again the key player in the process of intercultural communication and production translatum for the translation.

In 1992, Coulthard highlightd the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes the knowledge of certain facts, memory of certain experiences … plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices and a certain level of proficiency. In considering these issues, the extent to which the author may be influenced by concepts such as depend on their own sense of belonging to a specific socio-cultural group should not be forgotten.

Coulthard said that once the ideal readership ST has been determined, the considerations must be made on the TT. It said that the first translator and the main difficulty is the construction of a new ideal reader, who, even if you have the same academic, professional and intellectual as well as the original drive, the same expectations of very different texts and cultural knowledge.

In the case of the extract translated here, is whether the ideal TT reader "substantially expectations records" Different, but their knowledge of culture is almost certain to vary considerably.

Applied to the criteria used to determine the ideal ST reader, he noted that some conditions are fulfilled with success by the potential TT ideal reader. In fact, the historical and cultural facts should not be known in detail, with cultural situations described. In addition, although given the level of proficiency to be more or less the same for the ST and TT reader, certain differences can possibly be observed in response to the use of a culturally specific vocabulary to be taken into account in the translation. Despite some opinions, preferences and prejudices can be transposed by instinct drive TT that you can associate your own experience, we must remember that they do not match the experience of the social situation ST player. Therefore, Coulthard said that all aspects of social and cultural basic issues remain when considering the cultural implications of translation.

Equivalence in Translation

Vinay and Darbelnet 1.1 and the definition of equivalence in translation

View Vinay and Darbelnet oriented translation equivalence as a procedure "to play the same position as in the original text, while using completely different." They also suggest that if this procedure is applied during the translation process, it can maintain the effects of TL text style in the text. In their view, the equivalence is the ideal method when the translator is faced with proverbs, phrases, idioms, clichés, word or name, and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds.

Regarding the equivalent expressions between pairs of languages, Vinay and Darbelnet say they are acceptable as long as his name appears in a bilingual dictionary as "full time equivalent. However, after taking into account the fact that glossaries and collections of idioms "Can never be exhaustive. The authors concluded that "the need for equivalence arises from the situation and is in the position of the text that the translators have to find a solution. "In fact, they argue that even if the semantic equivalent of the phrase in the text of the appointment in a dictionary or glossary, not enough, and does not guarantee a good translation. They provide a number of examples to prove his theory, and the following term appears in your List: Take One is a fixed expression with the equivalent of a French Take in the United Nations. However, if the expression appeared as an advertisement together a basket of free samples in a department store, the translator must find an equivalent term in a similar situation and use free sample expression.
1.2 Jakobson and the notion of equivalence in the difference

Roman Jakobson equivalence study has given new impetus theoretical analysis of the translation as it introduces the concept of "Equivalence in difference". On the basis of his semiotic approach to language and his aphorism "There is no signatum signum" (1959:232) offers three types of translation:

• Intralingual (in the language, ie rewording or paraphrase)
• Interlingual (between two languages)
• Intersemiotic (between sign systems)

Jakobson says that in the case of interlingual translation, translator makes use of synonyms, to get the message ST. This means that in interlingual translations there is no full equivalence between the units code. According to his theory, "the translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes" (ibid., p. 233). Jakobson says that the point of view of grammar language may be different the other to a greater or lesser degree, but that does not mean that the translation may be possible, in other words, the translator may face the problem of not finding a translation equivalent. He acknowledges that "whenever there is a deficiency, terminology can be qualified and amplified by loans or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic changes, and finally, by circumlocutions. Jakobson provides a number of examples comparing the structures of English and Russian, and explains that in those cases where there is no literal equivalent of a word or phrase in the ST, then it is the translator to choose the most appropriate way to do it in the TT.

There seems to be some similarity between the theory of Vinay and Darbelnet translation procedures and Jakobson's theory of translation. Both theories emphasize the fact that if an approach language is not appropriate to make a translation, the translator can rely on other processes such as loan translations, neologisms, and so on. Both theories recognize the limits of linguistic theory and argue that the translation can never be impossible, because there are several methods that the translator can choose. The role of the translator as the person who decides how to perform the translation is emphasized in both theories. Both Vinay and Darbelnet and Jakobson conceive the translation task as something that can always be done from one language to another, regardless of differences cultural or grammatical between ST and TT.

We conclude that the theory is essentially based on Jakobson's semiotic approach to translation by which the translator has to recode the ST message and then s / he must send a message to the equivalent of the TC.

1.3 Nida and Taber official correspondence and dynamic equivalence

Nida said there are two different types of equivalence, ie, formal equivalence, in the second edition of Nida and Taber (1982) the correspondence is known as the formal and dynamic equivalence. official correspondence focuses on the message itself, both in form and content, unlike dynamic equivalence, which is based on "the principle of equivalent effect" (1964:159). In the second edition (1982) or work, both theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.

Official correspondence should be composed of an element TL representing the closest equivalent of a word or phrase SL. Nida and Taber clear that there are always formal equivalents between language pairs. Therefore suggests that these formal equivalents should be used whenever possible if the translation is intended to achieve rather than formal equivalence dynamics. The use of formal equivalents can sometimes have serious consequences in the TT since the translation is not easily understood by the public Target (Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber said that "Normally, official correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic language of the host and therefore distorts the message and make the receiver to ignore or work enormously hard.

Dynamic Equivalence is defined as a principle that the translation of a translator seeks to translate the original meaning of the text so that TL will have the same impact on the public than the original public TC ST. They argue that "more frequently, the shape of the original text is changed, but only if the amendment is consistent with the transformation rules in language, contextual coherence transfer, and language processing receiver, the message is retained and the translation is faithful "(Nida and Taber, 1982:200).

One can easily see that Nida is in favor of applying dynamic equivalence, as a conversion process more efficient. This is perfectly understandable if one considers the context of the situation in which Nida was dealing with the phenomenon of translation, the translation of the Bible either. Thus, the product of the process translation, which is the text of the TL, you must have the same impact on different readers, it was addressed. Despite using a linguistic approach translation, Nida is much more interested in the message text or, in other words, the semantics.

1.4 Catford and the introduction of changes in translation

Catford translation equivalence approach very different from those taken by NIDA and had Catford a preference for a linguistic approach based on the translation This approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of rates and changes in the translation. Catford proposes major types of translation according to three criteria:

1. The scope of translation (Full or partial translation)
2. Status grammar in which the translation equivalence set (range related translation and translation without limits);
3. The levels of language involved in translation (total translation Translation and restricted).

We relate the second type of translation, since this is called the concept of equivalence, and then will analyze the concept of changes in the translation, prepared by Catford, based on the distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence. In range bound with a translation equivalent in the TL is required for each word or morpheme is found in the ST. A problem with official correspondence is that, despite being a useful tool for comparative linguistics, it seems to me that it's not really important in terms of assessing translation equivalence between ST and TT. For Therefore, now the other dimension correspondence Catford, namely the text that occurs when the TL text or portion of the text is "an opportunity Special … the equivalent of a given text or part of the SL text. "This is implemented by a switching process in which" a bilingual informant or a competent translator is consulted on the translation of sentences other than ST items that are modified to see "what changes if they appear in TL text following. "

Regarding changes in translation are concerned, Catford defined as "resulting from correspondence officer in the process of moving the SL to the TL "(ibid., p. 73). Catford argues that there are two main types of changes in the translation, which is level changes, the element SL language proficiency (grammar, for example) has a TL equivalent to another level (vocabulary, for example), and category changes divided into four types:

1. structural changes, involving changes grammatical structure between the ST and TT;
   
2. Class quarters, where an element of SL resulted in an element TL belonging to a different grammatical class, ie a verb can be translated by a name;
   
3. Unit changes, which involve changes in classification;
   
4. System changes that occur when Intra "SL and TL systems that correspond roughly in their formal constitution, but where the translation implies the choice of a term does not the system TL. For example, when SL becomes singular in a plural TL.

Catford has been criticized for his linguistic theory of translation. One of the harshest criticism came from Snell-Hornby (1988), who argued that the definition of textual equivalence is Catford 'circular', his theory and its confidence in "wholly inadequate bilingual informants, and phrases such as" simplistic and isolated even absurd. "She believes that the notion of equivalence in translation as an illusion. She said that the process of translation can not be reduced simply a linguistic activity, as shown in Catford for example, because there are also other factors such as cultural and textual aspects of the situation, to take into account in the translation. In other words, do not believe that linguistics is the only discipline that allows people to make a translation, because it implies different translate different cultures and situations, while not always match from one language to another.

1.5 House of Representatives and the development of overt and covert translation

House (1977) is in favor of semantic equivalence and pragmatic and says that ST and TT should match the other office. Casa suggests that it is possible to characterize the role of a text determining the dimensions of the situation ST.In the fact, according to his theory, each text is itself placed in a particular situation must be correctly identified and taken into account by the translator. After analysis of the ST, the Chamber is able to evaluate a translation if the ST and TT differed significantly characteristics of the situation, they are not functionally equivalent, and the translation is not of high quality. In fact, she acknowledges that " translation of the text must not only adapt to the source text function, but employ the equivalent size of the situation in other ways this function. "

Central to the House for debate is the concept of open and covert translations. In a TT translation open to the public does not directly and therefore does not at all for trying to recreate a "second home" as a translation says "openly must be a translation. "masked by the translation, however, produce a text that is functionally equivalent to ST. House is also argued that in this kind of translation that is not specifically addressed public TC ST.

Playhouse types of ST, which would probably give the translation both categories. An academic article, for example, is unlikely to have characteristics specific to the SC, the section has the same declaratory or argumentative force it would if it had originated from the LT, and the fact that this is a translation need not be disclosed to readers. Speech Politics in SC, on the other hand, speaks to a cultural or national group that he intends to take action or influence, while the TT is limited to report what he says in his constituency. It is clear that in the latter case, which is an instance of open translation, equivalence function can be maintained, and it is intended, therefore, that ST and TT different.
theory of the House of equivalence in the translation seems to be much more flexible than Catford. In fact, he gives concrete examples, using text and, more importantly, the characteristics language in the context of the source and target text.

1.6 The practice of translation equivalence Baker

New adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence (grammatical, textual, pragmatic equivalence, and many others) and appeared in the plethora of recent works in this field. A very interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence can be found Baker (1992), which seems to offer a more detailed list of conditions in which the notion of equivalence can be defined. It explores the notion equivalence at different levels regarding the translation process, including all aspects of translation and thus respond to diversity linguistic and communicative approach. It distinguishes between:

• Equivalence that may occur at the word level and above word, when translating from one language to another. Baker acknowledges that, in a bottom-up approach to translation equivalence at word level is the first element to be considered by the translator. In fact, when the translator begins his analysis of the ST / not look at the words as a single unit to find a direct equivalent "term of the TL. Baker gives a definition of the word, we must remember that sometimes a word can be assigned different meanings in different languages and can be regarded as a more complex unit or morpheme. This means that the translator must be careful a number of factors when considering a single word, such as number, gender and tense.

• Grammatical equivalence referring to different grammatical categories in different languages. Observe that grammatical rules may vary depending on the language, which may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. In fact, she claims that different grammatical structures in the SL and TL may produce changes remarkable in the way information is made or a message. These changes may cause the translator to add or omit information in the TT, because of the lack of certain grammatical resources TL own. These devices may cause grammatical problems in the translation Baker focuses on the number, tense and aspect, voice, and those between the sexes.

• Textual equivalence, referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Texture is an important element in translation, because it provides useful guidance for understanding and analysis of the ST that may help translators in their attempt to produce a coherent and integrated text TC to the public in a specific context. It depends on the translator to decide whether to maintain the bonds of cohesion and coherence of the original text. Your decision will be guided by three factors main, namely, the target audience, the purpose of translation and the text type.

• Pragmatic equivalence referring to implicatures and avoidance strategies during the translation process. Implicature is not what is said explicitly, but what is at issue. Therefore, the translator must resolve meaning implied in the translation to convey the message ST. The role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in another culture, allowing the reader to understand clearly TC.

Postcolonialism and multiculturalism

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, in 1993, was introduced postcolonialism. Post-colonialism is one of the most prosperous of contact between cultural studies Translation and Research. Can be defined as a comprehensive cultural study of power relations between different groups, cultures or Peoples in this language, literature and translation may play a role. Spivak's work is revealing of how cultural studies and all post-colonialism in the last decade focused on issues of translation, translation and colonialism. The relationship between colonization and the translation is accompanied by the argument that translation has played an active role in the process of colonization and dissemination of an image for ideological reasons of colonized peoples. Metaphor was used in the colony as having less imitative translation, whose identity was suppressed been replaced by colonizer.

Postcolonial concepts can be put forward a vision of translation harmful as a mere instrument of the settlers who imposed their language and translation used to construct a distorted picture of the repressed people has served to strengthen the hierarchical structure of the colony. However, some critics post-colonialism, like Robinson, I think the point of view of translation as a tool purely harmful and damaging the rule is not exact.

Like other theorists of culture, Venuti, in 1995, insisted that the field of translation studies has broadened to take into account the nature based on the value of a sociocultural context. He used the term to describe the situation invisibility and translation activity in the Anglo-American. He said that this invisibility is caused by:

1 – The path of their own translators tend to translate into English fluently, to produce a language TT and easy to read, thus creating the illusion of transparency.

2 – The way the translations are usually read in the target culture:

"A translated text, either in prose or poetry or literature, is considered acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities that seem transparent, giving the appearance that reflects personality of the writer's intention or abroad or the essential meaning of the outward text_, in other words, the translation is not really a translation but the original. "

(Venuti, 1999)

Venuti discussed the invisible hand of the hand with two types of translation strategies: domestication and denationalization. In his view, domestication as the dominant Anglo-American (TL) of the culture of translation. Like postcolonialists were sensitive to the effects of cultural difference in relationships of power between the colonies and former colonies, Venuti deplored the phenomenon of domestication, as it is to reduce the foreign text to target language cultural values. These translate seamlessly fluid, invisible style to reduce the strangeness of the TT. Venuti think that a translator must leave the reader in peace, wherever possible, and to advance the author towards him.

Foregnization, however, implies the choice of foreign language text and the development of a method of translation along the lines that exclude cultural values dominant in the target language. Ventuti believes that the method foreignizing at a pressure of ethno deflected in the target language cultural values to record the differences language and culture of foreign text, sending players abroad. He is very practical in an effort to stem the violence ethnocentric translation. Foreignizing method of translating strategy Venuti also called resistancy "is a fluid-or translation of distance style not designed to make visible the translator continued, emphasizing the identity of foreign S & T and protects the ideological culture target.

In his latest book "The scandals of translation" Venuti insisted foreignizing or as they called it, " minoritizing trans, speech to cultivate a diverse and heterogeneous. Since language is concerned, or the translation method minoritizing foriegnizing Venuti is through the inclusion foreignizing elements deliberately in an attempt to make visible and the translator for the reader to realize that reading a translation of the work of a foreign culture. Denationalization is close to adhering to the structure and syntax ST.

Venuti also said that conditions can change direction over time and location.

In 1996, Simon said that cultural translation studies provides an understanding of the complexity of gender and culture and allows us to situate the language shift. In his view, a language of sexism in Translation Studies, with its image of domination, fidelity, loyalty and betrayal. He said the image of the seventeenth century of "The Fair infidels "(unbelievers beauties), translations into French were artistically beautiful, but unfaithful. She went further and investigated macho image of George Steiner's translation penetration.

Feminist theorists, more or less, see a parallel between the status of translation, which is often considered derivative and inferior to the original writing and that the repression of women so often in the society and literature. This translation is at the heart of feminist theory seeks to identify and critique of the tangle of concepts that relegate women and translating the bottom of the social and literary level. Simon has this issue on the concept of duties of a translation project. translation project here can be defined as such: an approach to literary translation in which feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies (linguistic or otherwise) in the foreground the feminist in the translated text. It may seem worth mentioning that the reverse translation projects occurs when work marked by gender are translated so that their distinctive characteristics are affected.

With the spread of deconstruction and Cultural Studies Academy, the issue of ideology has become an important area of study. The field of translation studies do show no exceptions to this general trend. Also note that the concept of ideology is not new and has been an area of interest for a long period. Discuss the problem of translation and ideology is a matter of definition. There are many definitions of ideology it is impossible to list them all. For example, Hatim and Mason (1997) argue that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and systems values which are shared social groups collectively. They make a distinction between the ideology of translation and the translation of ideology. While first refers to the orientation Basic chosen by the translator to operate a social and cultural context. In the translation of ideology which considered the degree of mediation made by a translator sensitive text. Here, mediation is defined as the extent to which the translators involved in the transfer process, feeding their own knowledge and beliefs word processor.

In 1999, Hermans said that culture refers to all aspects of life socially conditioned human resources. He said the translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said that we bring to translation both cognitive and normative expectations, which are continually being negotiated, confirmed, adjusted and modified by the practice of translators and all interested in the translation. These expectations are communication within the translation system, for example, between the existing translations and statements on translation and translation between the system and other social systems.

In 2002, the cultural translation Hervey and Higgins believes in cultural life rather than a literal translation. According to them, accept the translation literally means any transaction of cultural translation. But obviously there are obstacles the major language. They are the cultural barriers and here is a transposition in the culture that is necessary.

According to Hervey and Higgins has a wide cultural transposition Degree characteristics of the election in the Indian language and culture of the target instead of the characteristics that have their roots in the culture of origin. The result here is low foreign films with white text and to some extent naturalized. The scale here is an extreme which is mainly based the culture of origin (exotic) to the other end which is mainly based on the target culture (cultural transplant):

Exoticism

1) The alien
The degree of adaptation is very low here. The translation is the cultural characteristics and grammar SL to TL. It is very close to the assignment.

2) Trace
TL Trace includes words, but in the structure of the two, although the target drive idiomatic SL but is best known by far.

3) cultural borrowing
It is the transfer of literal expression of ST in the TT. Without adaptation of means of expression in SL TL. After some time tend to become a standard on the LT. cultural borrowing is rare in history, legal, social, political texts, for example, "Language" and "internship" in linguistics.

4) Communicative translation
Communicative translation is generally adopted for clichés of culture specific, such as idioms, proverbs, idioms, etc. In these cases, the translator word substitution, SL, with a existing concept in the target culture. Instead of cultural significance is not propositional is the same but has a similar impact on the target drive. The literal translation here may seem funny. The degree of use of this strategy may depend on the license gives the translator by the commissioners, and purpose of translation.

5) cultural transplantation
The full text is rewritten in the culture of destination. The word is not a literal equivalent TL but has the same cultural connotations to some extent. Another sort of extreme, but towards the target culture and the whole concept is transplanted in the TL. A normal translation must avoid both the exoticism and cultural transplantation.

In 2004, Nico Wiersema in his essay "Globalization and translation, "said that globalization is associated with a language for free English language, which is said to be used at conferences (Interpretation) and regarded as the main language in the new technologies. The use of English as a world language is an important trend in the media world. Globalization is also linked to the field of translation studies. In addition, globalization is placed in the context of changes in economy, science, technology and society. Globalization and technology are very useful for translators, translators that have more access information online, such as dictionaries of lesser-known languages. According to him, these observations can be extended to readers of translations. If the target text to be a challenge for the reader, the Internet can help you understand the foreign elements in the text. Thus, the text can be written in a more foreignising / Medium exoticism. He mentioned a relatively new trend in which the culture-related items (some might say, untranslatable), are not translated. He believes that this trend contributes to learning and understanding of foreign cultures. Context explains the culture, and adoption (not necessarily) adaptation of a selection of words enriches the target text, making it more exotic and therefore more attractive to those who Read more about the culture in question. Over time, these new words may find their place in the target language dictionaries. Translators and helped to enrich their own language with borrowed words the source language (especially English).

In his opinion, these borrowed words while TL as a major aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures relatives. He said that in this century, the process of globalization is moving faster than ever and there is no indication that stops short term. In each translation, there will be a distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices there, but there is now an option to include more foreign words in target texts. Therefore, SL is now possible to maintain cultural elements in texts destination. In each translation, there will be a distortion between cultures. The translator must defend the decisions he / she does, but now have an option to include more foreign words in the target texts.

The relationship between multiculturalism and postcolonialism seems to be uncomfortable. Multiculturalism deals with theories of difference, but unlike postcolonialism, which is widely perceived as being defined by their own historical legacy retroactively, multiculturalism administration is concerned (often endangered) diversity in contemporary geopolitical and historic centers and its former imperial colonies, without distinction. It is also increasingly a global discourse, because it takes into account the flow of migrants, refugees, diasporas and their relationship nation-states. The reason to continue to focus on multiculturalism, including a critical multiculturalism is precisely because it is so intimately linked in many parts of the world with the practices and discourses that run (often in the direction of the police and control) 'diversity'. In critical theory has often been embarrassing to invoke a term in part because it is considered automatically aligned with and without hope coopted by the state according to certain types of nation building conscious -. Accordingly, for example, is always rejected by the anti-racist groups in Britain (Hall, 1995). In the area of theoretical debate that is often associated with identity politics based on essentialism and claims of authenticity which automatically resets a version of the sovereign subject and concern reified notions of origins. This is impossible, it seems, to mention multiculturalism and social progress and critical theory at the same time. But for all these reasons, it is a contested term, so it is essential to continue to control the discourse and practice of mobilizing the name of multiculturalism.

Multiculturalism seeks to deal with minorities and therefore implies a relationship with a majority, but how these two categories are defined and exercised in relation to others is very controversial and complicated by differences joint between the advanced capitalist countries and so-called "Third World, between the settler societies" and, for example, the European community. In general factor in organizing the minorities are terms like "race," ethnicity "and" indigenous ", while its origins are causally related migration, colonization and the submission of others. With regard to "race" would be more accurate to speak of radicalization processes involved in the representation minorities to the existence of racial categories, no problems. "Ethnicity" as a category defined as a term has been used to avoid differential "Race" and the implications of a discredited "scientific" racism. Ethnicity was more easily connect to the European migration proliferated around the two world wars. In North America, terms such as "visible minorities" have been developed to classify non-European immigrants have been part of the diaspora and perfectly summarizes the mass and native groups and descendants of slaves Africans who had played a recognized role of anxiety "Nation" for many centuries. Thus, multiculturalism is often seen as a indicate a disguised form of racial differences. The need to deconstruct the "natural" front racialization is clear when one observes that groups like the Ukrainians in Canada and the Greeks and Italians in Australia were designated "Black" at various historical stages (Gunew, 1994). Other difficulties encountered by indigenous groups differ in Australia where Aborigines refuse to be included in multicultural discourses on the basis that these refer only to cultures of immigration, while in New Zealand biculturalism "is a formal expression of choice for Multiculturalism is seen as a deviation from the Maori sovereignty movement. First Nations in Canada are sometimes included in the multicultural discourse and practices and are constantly caught between the French-English divide. This has complicated the ongoing debates about cultural appropriation (Crosby, 1994).

1. Discussions also need to distinguish between multicultural state, which deals with managing diversity and Critical multiculturalism used by minorities as a lever to argue for participation based on their own difference in the public sphere. Minorities use a variety of strategies to overcome the assimilation most states assumptions of multiculturalism. Crucial in these two areas is the concept of "community" and here women are particularly affected.

According to Nico Wiersema (2004), crops are growing and that is something that believed that the translator must bear in mind. Ultimately it all depends on what the translator or more often, the publisher wants to accomplish with a translation in particular. In their view, through the introduction of cultural elements SL:

a-The text is more fluid (no stops)
b-The text is even more exotic, more foreign
c-The translator is closer to the source of culture
d-The target text reader receives a more authentic culture origin.

In 2004, ke ping on translation and culture has given attention to misinterpretation and presupposition. He said that among the many factors that can lead to misinterpretation in the translation are cultural assumptions.

cultural assumptions deserve special attention to translators, as systematically and significantly affect their interpretation of facts and events in the original text without the knowledge itself. We have identified the relationship between cultural assumptions and misinterpretations of the translation. According to him, misinterpretation of the translation budgets are often caused by a translator on the reality of the common language of origin. These budgets are generally from culturally and deserve special translator. He showed how the culture of working assumptions to produce misunderstanding in the translation.

According to Ping ke "assumption culture" refers to the underlying assumptions, beliefs and ideas that are culturally rooted and widespread.

· According to him anthropologists agree on the following elements of culture:

(1) Culture is socially learned rather than biologically transmitted;
(2) Culture is shared among members of a community rather than being merely an individual;
(3) Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing means assigning meanings to entities and events that are external to them and can not be understood only. The language system is the most typical symbols of culture;
(4) Culture is integrated. Every aspect of culture is linked to all

About the Author

MA in TRANSLATION, Great Translation Theoretician,Mazandaran province, Ghaemshar city,IRAN

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